The present invention generally relates to implantable devices for cardiac stimulation and pacing therapy, and more particularly, the present invention is concerned with cardiac therapies involving the controlled delivery of electrical or mechanical stimulations to the heart for the treatment of congestive heart failure, and an apparatus for delivering such therapies with the objective of altering secretion of hormones by the heart muscle.
Congestive Heart Failure
Congestive heart failure (CHF) occurs when muscle cells in the heart die or no longer function properly, causing the heart to lose its ability to pump enough blood through the body. Heart failure usually develops gradually, over many years, as the heart becomes less and less efficient. It can be mild, scarcely affecting an individual's life, or severe, making even simple activities difficult.
Congestive heart failure (CHF) accounts for over 1 million hospital admissions yearly in the United States (U.S.) and is associated with a 5-year mortality rate of 40%-50%. In the U.S., CHF is currently the most costly cardiovascular disease, with the total estimated direct and indirect costs approaching $56 billion in 1999.
Recent advances in the treatment of CHF with medications, including angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers (Carvedilol, Bisoprolol, Metoprolol), Hydralazine with nitrates, and Spironolactone have resulted in significantly improved survival rates. Although many medications have been clinically beneficial, they fall short of clinician's expectations and as a result consideration has turned to procedures and devices as additional and more potent heart failure therapy.
There has been recent enthusiasm for biventricular pacing (pacing both pumping chambers of the heart) in congestive heart failure patients. It is estimated that 30% to 50% of patients with CHF have inter-ventricular conduction defects. These conduction abnormalities lead to a discoordinated contraction of the left and right ventricles of an already failing and inefficient heart. When the right ventricle alone is paced with a pacemaker, the delayed activation of the left ventricle, can also lead to significant dyssynchrony (delay) in left ventricular contraction and relaxation.
Because ventricular arrhythmias continue to threaten CHF patients and many anti-arrhythmic drugs have unacceptable side effects, a sophisticated implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) device has shown encouraging results. Biventricular pacing in combination with ICDs demonstrates a trend toward improved survival. Preliminary data in animals and humans using subthreshold (of the type that does not by itself cause heart muscle to contract) stimulation of the heart muscle to modulate cardiac contractility are encouraging and may further enhance the quality of life of CHF patients.
It is also clear that many patients with CHF are not candidates for biventricular pacing or do not respond to this treatment strategy. This also applies to other recent advances and experimental therapies. There is a clear need for new, better therapies that will improve and prolong life of heart failure patients and reduce the burden on the medical system. It is particularly important that these new therapies should not require a major surgery, prolonged stay in the hospital or frequent visits to the doctor's office.
Electric Activity of the Heart
In a given cardiac cycle (corresponding to one “beat” of the heart), the two atria contract, forcing the blood therein into the ventricles. A short time later, the two ventricles contract, forcing the blood therein to the lungs (from the right ventricle) or through the body (from the left ventricle). Meanwhile, blood from the body fills the right atrium and blood from the lungs fills the left atrium, waiting for the next cycle to begin. A healthy adult human heart may beat at a rate of 60-80 beats per minute (bpm) while at rest, and may increase its rate to 140-180 bpm when the adult is engaging in strenuous physical exercise, or undergoing other physiologic stress.
The healthy heart controls its rhythm from its sinoatrial (SA) node, located in the upper portion of the right atrium. The SA node generates an electrical impulse at a rate commonly referred to as the “sinus” or “intrinsic” rate. This impulse is delivered to the atrial tissue when the atria are to contract and, after a suitable delay (on the order of 140-220 milliseconds), propagates to the ventricular tissue when the ventricles are to contract. SA node is the natural pacemaker of the heart. If it is disabled, there are other specialized areas of the heart muscle that can generate an intrinsic heart rate.
The ventricular muscle tissue is much more massive than the atrial muscle tissue. The atrial muscle tissue need only produce a contraction sufficient to move the blood a very short distance from the respective atrium to its corresponding ventricle. The ventricular muscle tissue, on the other hand, must produce a contraction sufficient to push the blood through the complete circulatory system of the entire body. Even though total loss of atrial contraction can lead to a small reduction of cardiac output it is not an immediate risk to life.
Electronic Cardiac Pacemakers
It is the function of a electronic pacemaker (pacemaker) to provide electrical stimulation pulses to the appropriate chamber(s) of the heart (atrium, ventricle, or both) in the event the heart is unable to beat on its own (i.e., in the event either the SA node fails to generate its own natural stimulation pulses at an appropriate sinus rate, or in the event such natural stimulation pulses do not effectively propagate to the appropriate cardiac tissue). Most modern pacemakers accomplish this function by operating in a “demand” mode where stimulation pulses from the pacemaker are provided to the heart only when it is not beating on its own, as sensed by monitoring the appropriate chamber of the heart for the occurrence of a P-wave or an R-wave. If a P-wave or an R-wave is not sensed within a prescribed period of time (which period of time is often referred to as the “escape interval”), then a stimulation pulse is generated at the conclusion of this prescribed period of time and delivered to the appropriate heart chamber via a pacemaker lead. Pacemaker leads are isolated wires equipped with sensing and stimulating electrodes.
Modern programmable pacemakers are generally of two types: (1) single-chamber pacemakers, and (2) dual-chamber pacemakers. In a single-chamber pacemaker, the pacemaker provides stimulation pulses to, and senses cardiac activity within, a single-chamber of the heart (e.g., either the right ventricle or the right atrium). In a dual-chamber pacemaker, the pacemaker provides stimulation pulses to, and senses cardiac activity within, two chambers of the heart (e.g., both the right atrium and the right ventricle). The left atrium and left ventricle can also be paced, provided that suitable electrical contacts are made therewith.
Much has been written and described about the various types of pacemakers and the advantages and disadvantages of each. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,712,555 of Thornander et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,601,613 of Florio et al. present background information about pacemakers and the manner in which they interface with a patient's heart. These patents are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.
One of the most versatile programmable pacemakers available today is the DDDR pacemaker. This pacemaker represents a fully automatic pacemaker which is capable of sensing and pacing in both the atrium and the ventricle, and is also capable of adjusting the pacing rate based on one or more physiological factors, such as the patient's activity level. It is commonly accepted that the DDDR pacemaker is superior in that it can maintain AV synchrony while providing bradycardia (slow heart beat) support. It is also generally more expensive than other, simpler types of pacemakers. A description of DDDR pacing is included in this discloser as a state of the art.
In general, DDDR pacing has four functional states: (1) P-wave sensing, ventricular pacing (PV); (2) atrial pacing, ventricular pacing (AV); (3) P-wave sensing, R-wave sensing (PR); and (4) atrial pacing, R-wave sensing (AR).
It is accepted as important and advantageous, for the patient with complete or partial heart block, that the PV state of the DDDR pacemaker tracks the atrial rate, which is set by the heart's SA node, and then paces in the ventricle at a rate that follows this atrial rate. It is advertised that because the rate set by the SA node represents the rate at which the heart should beat in order to meet the physiologic demands of the body (at least for a heart having a properly functioning SA node) the rate maintained in the ventricle by such a pacemaker is truly physiologic.
In some instances, a given patient may develop dangerously fast atrial rhythms, which result from a pathologic arrhythmia such as a pathological tachycardia, fibrillation or flutter. In these cases, a DDDR pacemaker may pace the ventricle in response to the sensed atrial arrhythmia up to a programmed maximum tracking rate (MTR). The MTR defines the upper limit for the ventricular rate when the pacemaker is tracking the intrinsic atrial rate. As a result, the MTR sets the limit above which the ventricles cannot be paced, regardless of the intrinsic atrial rate. Thus, the purpose of the MTR is to prevent rapid ventricular stimulation, which could occur if the intrinsic atrial rate becomes very high and the pacemaker attempts to track atrial activity with 1:1 AV synchrony.
When the intrinsic atrial rate exceeds the MTR the pacemaker may initiate one or more upper atrial rate response functions—such as automatically switching the pacemaker's mode of operation from an atrial tracking mode to a non-atrial rate tracking mode.
The heart's natural response to a very high atrial rate involves a natural phenomenon known as “blocking”—where the AV node attempts to maintain a form of AV synchrony by “dropping out” occasional ventricular beats when the high atrial rate exceeds a certain natural threshold i.e., the refractory period of the heart tissue. The blocking phenomenon is often expressed as a ratio of the atrial beats to the ventricular beats (e.g. 6:5, 4:3, etc.). Of particular importance is a 2:1 block condition where there are two atrial beats for every one ventricular beat. The 2:1 block condition is a natural response to a very high atrial rate, during which full ventricular rate synchronization (i.e. at a 1:1 ratio) would be dangerous to the patient.
Some known pacemakers emulate this 2:1 condition, by tracking P-waves up to the device's programmed total refractory period (TARP) of the heart. That is, P-waves which fall in the total refractory period are not tracked, and the device is said to have a “2:1 response mode”. During the 2:1 block response mode, the ventricles are paced at a lower rate than the natural atrial rate, because P-waves occurring soon after ventricular events are ignored for the purposes of calculating the ventricular pacing rate. As a result, the 2:1 block response mode prevents the pacemaker from pacing the ventricles at a tachycardia rate.
The 2:1 block response mode is an effective response for dealing with short incidences of high atrial rates and in preventing occurrence of a pacemaker mediated tachycardia resulting from retrograde P-waves. However, the 2:1 block response mode may become uncomfortable for the patient if it is maintained for an extended period of time due to programmed long atrial refractory periods, because the pacing rate will be ½ of the required physiologic rate.
Many more advanced pacemaker operation modes have been described and sometimes implemented. Some of these modes included sensing abnormally high atrial rates and prevented them from causing rapid ventricular rates. Common to prior pacing no attempt has been made to induce a rapid (faster than normal) atrial rate by pacing or to pace atria at rate higher than ventricles.
Natriuretic Peptides (ANP and BNP)
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is a hormone that is released from myocardial cells in the atria and in some cases the ventricles in response to volume expansion and increased wall stress. Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) is a natriuretic hormone that is similar to ANP. It was initially identified in the brain but is also present in the heart, particularly the ventricles.
The release of both ANP and BNP is increased in heart failure (CHF), as ventricular cells are recruited to secrete both ANP and BNP in response to the high ventricular filling pressures. The plasma concentrations of both hormones are increased in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic left ventricular dysfunction, permitting their use in diagnosis. A Johnson and Johnson Company Scios sells popular intravenous (IV) medication Natrecor (nesiritide), a recombinant form of the endogenous human peptide for the treatment of decompensated CHF. The advent of Natrecor marked an important evolution in the understanding and treatment of acute heart failure.
Both ANP and BNP have diuretic, natriuretic, and hypotensive effects. They also inhibit the renin-angiotensin system, endothelin secretion, and systemic and renal sympathetic activity. Among patients with CHF, increased secretion of ANP and BNP may partially counteract the effects of norepinephrine, endothelin, and angiotensin II, limiting the degree of vasoconstriction and sodium retention. BNP may also protect against collagen accumulation and the pathologic remodeling that contributes to progressive CHF.